No title

Subject : Engineering Chemistry 

Unit 1: Water Technology

Syllabus Topics

• Impurities in water can be of various types such as physical, chemical, and biological, each affecting the quality and usability of water differently.
• Hardness of water is mainly due to the presence of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium.

  • Types:

    • Temporary hardness caused by bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.

    • Permanent hardness caused by chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium.

  • Units of hardness are commonly expressed in ppm, mg/L, and degrees Clark.

  • Numerical problems are based on the conversion of different units and total hardness calculation.
    • Determination of hardness by EDTA method involves the titration of a water sample with a standard EDTA solution using the Eriochrome Black T indicator, following the concept of molarity.
    • Determination of alkalinity includes measuring the concentration of hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions, often with numerical problems for clarity.
    • Ill effects of hard water in boilers include:

  • Priming and Foaming: Formation of wet steam or froth that affects efficiency.

  • Scale and Sludge Formation: Deposition of insoluble salts on boiler walls reducing heat transfer.
    • Water Treatment Methods:

  • Zeolite process: Involves ion exchange using sodium zeolite to remove hardness-producing ions. (Includes numerical calculations).

  • Demineralization (Ion Exchange) Method: Uses cation and anion exchange resins to completely remove dissolved salts.
    • Purification Techniques:

  • Reverse Osmosis: Water is forced through a semi-permeable membrane to remove ions and impurities.

  • Electrodialysis: Uses electric potential across selective membranes to separate ions.
    • Modern Atmospheric Water Generation (AWG): Advanced systems that extract water directly from the air’s humidity using condensation and cooling technologies.

Important, Expected & PYQ’s Questions

• 1) What are the causes, preventions & disadvantages of scale formation in boilers?
• 2) What is meant by softening of water? Explain the zeolite method used for water softening.
• 3) Describe the demineralization or deionization process for softening of hard water and mention its advantages over the zeolite method.
• 4) What are the different types of water hardness and how do they differ in causes and removal methods?
• 5) Numerical on calculation of alkaline, non-alkaline, and total hardness in ppm (mg/L).
• 6) Explain the EDTA method for determining total hardness of water. Draw the metal-EDTA complex and write the chemical reactions involved.
• 7) Explain the principle of standardization of EDTA using ZnSO₄ solution and Eriochrome Black T (EBT) indicator. Describe the reactions and color changes at the endpoint.
• 8) Describe the procedure for total hardness determination using standardized EDTA and explain the chemistry involved.
• 9) How is total, permanent, and temporary hardness calculated using EDTA titration data?
• 10) What are the causes and consequences of high alkalinity in boiler water?
• 11) How are different types of alkalinity (hydroxide, carbonate, bicarbonate) identified and measured using phenolphthalein and methyl orange titrations?
• 12) Numerical based on alkalinity determination in water.
• 13) What are the causes, disadvantages, and prevention of sludge formation in boilers?
• 14) What dangers are associated with scale formation in boilers?
• 15) Explain the difference between scale and sludge and their formation in boilers.
• 16) Numerical on determination of NaCl concentration.
• 17) Why can’t water containing Fe²⁺ and Mn²⁺ ions be treated using the zeolite method? Explain why regeneration fails.
• 18) Explain the electro-dialysis process for desalination of hard water.
• 19) What are the two main techniques used in atmospheric water generation (AWG) for trapping water from air?
• 20) What are the challenges faced in trapping water from air, and what is the current situation of water scarcity in India?


Unit 2: Instrumental Methods of Analysis

Syllabus Topics

• Electrodes are devices that allow the transfer of electrons between a chemical system and an external circuit. They are broadly classified as:

  • Reference Electrode: Example – Calomel electrode, used to provide a stable reference potential.

  • Indicator Electrode: Example – Glass electrode, used to measure pH by detecting hydrogen ion concentration.

  • Ion Selective Electrode (ISE): Example – Solid membrane electrode, designed to detect specific ions like fluoride or nitrate.

• [A] Conductometry

  • Concept of Conductance: Refers to the ability of a solution to conduct electricity, depending on ion concentration and mobility.

  • Conductivity Cell: Consists of two platinum electrodes used to measure electrical conductance.

  • Conductometric Titration: Involves measuring changes in conductance during titration.

    • Strong acid vs Strong base titrations show a sharp change in conductance at the equivalence point.

    • The titration curve helps determine the endpoint without using chemical indicators.

• [B] pH-Metry

  • Introduction: pH indicates the hydrogen ion concentration, showing whether a solution is acidic or basic.

  • Working of pH Meter: It measures potential difference between the glass and reference electrode.

  • Standardization: The instrument is calibrated using buffer solutions of known pH before use.

  • pH-Metric Titration: Involves strong acid vs strong base reactions where pH changes sharply at the equivalence point.

  • The titration curve helps in identifying the endpoint and analyzing weak or mixed acids.

• [C] UV-Visible Spectroscopy

  • Introduction: Based on absorption of UV or visible light by molecules causing electronic excitation.

  • Beer’s Law and Lambert’s Law: State the linear relationship between absorbance, concentration, and path length.

  • Electronic Transitions: Involve movement of σ, Ï€, or n electrons within molecules.

  • Terms Used: Absorbance, transmittance, molar absorptivity, and wavelength of maximum absorption (λmax).

  • Instrumentation: The Double Beam Spectrophotometer compares sample and reference beams for accuracy.

  • Applications and Numerical Problems: Used for determining molar absorptivity, concentration, and purity of solutions through absorbance data.

Important, Expected & PYQ’s Questions

• 1) What are the two types of electrochemical cells discussed and their main differences?
• 2) Explain the factors affecting electrode potential, differentiating oxidation and reduction potentials.
• 3) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of calomel electrode as a reference electrode. Explain factors determining its potential and methods to improve its stability.
• 4) Describe the construction and working principle of glass electrode used for pH measurement. Mention the role of internal reference solution.
• 5) Explain the working of a solid-state membrane electrode like the fluoride ion-selective electrode.
• 6) Define specific conductance (κ) and explain the importance of cell constant in its calculation.
• 7) Differentiate between equivalent conductance and specific conductance.
• 8) Explain how specific conductance varies with concentration, number of ions, ionic charge, ion mobility, and temperature.
• 9) Describe the principle of conductometric titration and explain the conductance change pattern in a strong acid–strong base titration.
• 10) Explain how conductometry helps when dealing with colored or turbid solutions where indicators fail.
• 11) List and explain the steps in pH measurement using a digital pH meter.
• 12) How is energy of electromagnetic radiation related to wavelength and frequency? Define photon in this context.
• 13) Differentiate between absorption and emission spectroscopy with examples.
• 14) Explain the relationship between electronic, vibrational, and rotational energy levels and their connection with different regions of the spectrum.
• 15) State and explain Beer-Lambert’s Law, define all involved parameters, and mention its limitations.
• 16) A sample solution shows 90% transmittance in a 1.9 cm cell with molar absorptivity 9000 dm³/mol/cm. Explain how Beer-Lambert’s Law is used to find concentration, and perform the calculation with discussion on limitations.
• 17) A 1.00 × 10⁻⁴ M solution shows absorbance 0.139 at 350 nm using a 1.3 cm path length cell. Calculate molar absorptivity and explain its units and importance.
• 18) Describe σ, Ï€, and n electrons in organic molecules and their role in electronic transitions during UV-Vis spectroscopy.
• 19) Differentiate between chromophores and auxochromes with examples. Explain how they affect UV-Vis absorption spectra and λmax values.
• 20) Explain bathochromic (red) and hypsochromic (blue) shifts observed in spectra, giving causes and examples.
• 21) Explain difference between hypsochromic and bathochromic shifts and give examples of molecular modifications responsible for each.
• 22) Describe the application of Beer-Lambert’s Law in quantitative UV-Vis spectroscopy and state conditions for validity.
• 23) Differentiate between electrolytic and voltaic cells with examples and uses.
• 24) State Nernst equation and explain its use in calculating cell potential. Mention its limitations.
• 25) Explain Kohlrausch’s Law, its application in conductometry, and its limitations with examples.
• 26) Briefly describe components of a double-beam spectrophotometer and their respective functions.


Unit 3: Advanced Engineering Materials

Syllabus Topics

• [A] Polymers

  • Definition: Polymers are large molecules made from repeating monomer units. Functionality indicates the number of reactive sites on a monomer.

  • Classification based on thermal behavior:

    • Thermoplastics: Soften on heating, can be reshaped.

    • Thermosetting: Harden irreversibly, do not soften on heating.

  • Specialty Polymers:

    • Engineering Thermoplastic: Example – Polycarbonate, used in durable applications.

    • Biodegradable Polymer: Example – PHBV (Polyhydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate), breaks down naturally.

    • Conducting Polymer: Example – Polyacetylene, conducts electricity.

• [B] Nanomaterials

  • Introduction: Materials engineered at 1–100 nm scale, showing unique properties.

  • Classification by dimensions:

    • Zero-Dimensional (0D): Nanoparticles or quantum dots.

    • One-Dimensional (1D): Nanotubes, nanowires.

    • Two-Dimensional (2D): Graphene sheets.

    • Three-Dimensional (3D): Nanostructured bulk materials.

  • Structure, Properties & Applications:

    • Graphene: Single-atom thick, excellent conductivity, mechanical strength, energy storage, biomedical applications.

    • Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs): Cylindrical tubes of graphene, high tensile strength, electrical conductivity, used in electronics, composites.

    • Quantum Dots: Semiconductor nanoparticles, size-dependent optical properties, used in displays and bioimaging.

Important, Expected & PYQ’s Questions

• 1) Define biodegradation of polymers and state factors affecting it. Draw structure of PHBV.
• 2) Define monomers and polymers with suitable examples.
• 3) Explain the polymerization process with an appropriate example.
• 4) What are conducting polymers? List types, explain doping to enhance conductivity, and give applications.
• 5) Explain classification of polymers based on thermal behavior and give examples of thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers.
• 6) Give structure, properties, and applications of Polycarbonate as a thermoplastic.
• 7) Compare thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers in terms of properties and uses.
• 8) Describe preparation of Polycarbonate by condensation polymerization.
• 9) What are nanomaterials? Classify them based on size and dimension.
• 10) Discuss biodegradability of polycarbonates.
• 11) Write structure, properties, and applications of graphene.
• 12) Define biodegradation of a polymer and classification of biodegradable polymers.
• 13) State limitations of commercial use of biodegradable plastics.
• 14) Differentiate intrinsically and extrinsically conducting polymers.
• 15) Explain doping in conducting polymers and its effect on conductivity.
• 16) What is polyacetylene and describe its preparation.
• 17) List applications of conducting polymers and their limitations.
• 18) Explain nanotechnology in detail.
• 19) Describe structure and electronic properties of graphene.
• 20) Discuss applications of graphene in energy storage and biomedical fields.
• 21) Explain carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in detail.
• 22) Discuss applications of CNTs in chemical sensing and field emission devices.
• 23) Explain optical properties of quantum dots and CNT applications in structural composites.
• 24) Explain size-dependent properties of quantum dots and applications in display technology.
• 25) What are carbon nanotubes? Explain types and applications.
• 26) What are quantum dots? Write properties and applications.


Unit 4: Energy Sources

Syllabus Topics

• Introduction and classification of fuels: Fuels are substances that release energy on combustion. Classified based on chemical composition, physical state, or combustion reaction type.
• Characteristics of an ideal fuel: High calorific value, clean combustion, easy storage and transport, and low pollution.
• Calorific Value: Amount of energy released per unit mass of fuel.

  • Higher Calorific Value (HCV): Total energy released including latent heat of vaporization of water.

  • Lower Calorific Value (LCV): Energy released excluding latent heat of vaporization.
    • Determination of calorific value:

  • Bomb Calorimeter: Measures energy by complete combustion in a sealed vessel; principle, construction, and working are essential.

  • Boy’s Gas Calorimeter: For gaseous fuels; principle, construction, and working explained.

  • Numerical problems for HCV and LCV calculations.
    • Solid Fuel – Coal:

  • Proximate Analysis: Determines moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon content.

  • Ultimate Analysis: Determines elemental composition – C, H, S, N, O.

  • Related numerical problems for practical understanding.
    • Alternative Fuels:

  • Power Alcohol: Prepared via fermentation or hydration; has advantages and disadvantages.

  • Biodiesel: Produced from vegetable oils or animal fats; renewable and less polluting.
    • Hydrogen Gas as a Future Fuel: Clean, high-energy fuel with challenges in storage and transportation.
    • Lithium-ion Battery:

  • Construction: Includes anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator.

  • Working: Charging and discharging reactions.

  • Advantages and Applications: Lightweight, rechargeable, widely used in electronics and vehicles.

Important, Expected & PYQ’s Questions

• 1) Explain classification of fuels based on type of chemical reaction during combustion with examples, including advantages and disadvantages of each.
• 2) Describe characteristics of an ideal fuel.
• 3) Define calorific value and state its units.
• 4) Explain the difference between Gross Calorific Value (GCV) and Net Calorific Value (NCV) and their relationship.
• 5) Numerical on GCV and NCV of fuels.
• 6) What is proximate analysis? Explain procedure for each constituent with formulas.
• 7) Numerical on weight percentage of carbon, hydrogen, moisture, volatile matter, ash, and fixed carbon in coal.
• 8) Explain determination of sulfur in coal using Eschka method and its significance.
• 9) Describe Kjeldahl method for nitrogen content determination in coal and explain importance of nitrogen.
• 10) What is power alcohol? Explain preparation reactions and two disadvantages.
• 11) How is oxygen content in coal determined? Explain its significance.
• 12) Explain ash determination in coal and why it is important.
• 13) Numerical on % N and % S present in coal.
• 14) Discuss advantages and disadvantages of power alcohol and biodiesel and compare their properties and production methods.
• 15) Discuss advantages and limitations of hydrogen gas as a future fuel, including production and storage challenges.
• 16) Give reaction for biodiesel formation and state three advantages.
• 17) Explain hydrogen production by steam reforming of methane and coke and how H₂ is separated from CO₂.
• 18) Explain difficulties in hydrogen storage and transportation.
• 19) Explain three corrections in calculation of GCV using Bomb Calorimeter.
• 20) What is a lithium-ion battery? Explain construction, working, and charging/discharging reactions.
• 21) Calculate NCV of a fuel sample with given elemental composition and HCV.
• 22) Explain difference between GCV and NCV and derive relationship between them.
• 23) Describe proximate and ultimate analysis of coal and explain parameters determined and their significance in fuel quality assessment.


Unit 5: Corrosion and its Prevention

Syllabus Topics

• Introduction: Corrosion is the gradual destruction of metals due to chemical or electrochemical reactions with the environment.
• Types of Corrosion:

  • Dry Corrosion: Occurs in absence of moisture, often forming oxide layers on metals.

  • Wet Corrosion: Occurs in presence of water or electrolytes, involving hydrogen evolution or oxygen absorption mechanisms.
    • Mechanism of Corrosion:

  • Dry Corrosion: Involves oxide film formation; Pilling-Bedworth’s rule predicts whether the oxide layer protects the metal.

  • Wet Corrosion: Follows electrochemical pathways; hydrogen evolution occurs at the cathode, oxygen absorption at the anode.
    • Factors Affecting Corrosion Rate: Temperature, humidity, metal composition, pH, presence of salts or pollutants, and mechanical stress.
    • Corrosion Control and Prevention Methods:

  • Cathodic Protection:

    • Sacrificial Anode: More reactive metal corrodes instead of protected metal.

    • Impressed Current: External current applied to prevent metal oxidation.

  • Metallic Coatings:

    • Surface Preparation ensures adhesion of protective coating.

    • Methods: Hot dipping, electroplating.

  • Corrosion-Resistant / Anti-Corrosive Paints: Include pigments or nanoparticles to slow corrosion.

Important, Expected & PYQ’s Questions

• 1) Define dry corrosion and explain its mechanism.
• 2) Explain dry corrosion with diagram and discuss factors affecting its extent.
• 3) Explain Pilling-Bedworth’s Ratio (PBR) and its significance in predicting protective or non-protective oxide films, with examples.
• 4) Define wet corrosion and explain mechanisms via hydrogen evolution and oxygen absorption with examples.
• 5) Explain wet corrosion with factors affecting it and discuss the electrochemical series’ significance.
• 6) Explain the electrochemical series of metals and its relevance in predicting corrosion tendencies, with examples.
• 7) Explain corrosion prevention methods including metallic coatings and cathodic protection.
• 8) Explain galvanizing and tinning with process differences and applications.
• 9) Describe cathodic protection methods including sacrificial anode and impressed current systems.
• 10) Explain hydrogen attack in metals and its mechanism.
• 11) State the principle of cathodic protection and discuss one type in detail.
• 12) Explain steel galvanization with diagram and process steps.
• 13) Define anodic and cathodic coatings and state which is more protective and why.
• 14) Explain tinning with process diagram.
• 15) Explain electroplating, procedure, and applications.
• 16) Explain how copper nanoparticles improve paint properties, focusing on corrosion resistance.
• 17) Discuss five factors affecting corrosion related to metals only.
• 18) Explain factors affecting corrosion rate.
• 19) Describe the role of conducting polymer nanoparticles (CPNs) in enhancing paint properties for corrosion protection.
• 20) Give different types of oxide films formed on metals with examples.
• 21) Discuss consequences of corrosion and explain advantages of nano-coatings in prevention.


Share this post
Share it with someone who may find it useful

You may like these posts